Wednesday 18 March 2009

GLOBALIZATION AND URBANIZATION DIFFERENCES

INTRODUCTION
Generally, human existence cannot do without some forms of changes been it natural or artificial over time. Changes is something or phenomenon that is constant in it occurrence, as a result man in his activities bye and large strive to develop himself and his environment in order to meet up with the challenges of change that are bound to happened.
Globalization and Urbanization are some of these challenges that occur as a result of man activities in both the natural and artificial set up. Which to a large extent pose some challenges on man activities either positively or negatively? Most of the literature on urbanization and globalization has so far been focused on the cities of developed countries that have had their economic bases greatly enhanced by globalization, namely, New York, London and Tokyo (Sassen, 1991).
There have been very little systematic studies of urbanization in less developed countries where the benefits of globalization are less obvious or are absent despite two decades of donor-mandated economic reform programmes by developing countries in an effort to integrate them better to the world economy. Even less known is about the effect of globalization on the relationships between capital cities that serve as the nerve center of global accumulation and the hundreds of small towns and provincial capitals that have been untouched by economic globalization in a meaningful way. This paper will examine with critical issues the differences that exist between globalization and urbanization
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN URBANIZATION AND GLOBALIZATION
We will like to clearly distinguish or draw a land mark between the concept of urbanization and globalization under the following sub-themes:
a. Historical perspective,
b. Conceptual clarifications,
c. Characteristics features,
d. Challenges and
e. Benefits
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
Globalization: The concept of globalization in an abstract sense i.e unpopular, originated around 1500. In parts of Western Europe, a long-term crisis of feudalism which gave way to technological innovation and the rise of market institutions advances in production and incentives for long-distance trade stimulated Europeans to reach other parts of the globe. In the 15th century, Portugal's Company of Guinea was one of the first chartered commercial companies established by Europeans in other continent during the Age of Discovery, whose task was to deal with the spices and to fix the prices of the goods. During the "long sixteenth century," Europeans thus established an occupational and geographic division of labor in which capital-intensive production was reserved for core countries while peripheral areas provided low-skill labor and raw materials. At any one time, a particular state could have hegemonic influence as the technological and military leader, but no single state could dominate the system: it is a world economy in which states are bound to compete. While the Europeans started with only small advantages, they exploited these to reshape the world in their capitalist image. The world as a whole is now devoted to endless accumulation and profit-seeking on the basis of exchange in a market that treats goods and labor alike as commodities.
Globalization in a wider context began shortly before the turn of the 16th century, with two Kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula - the Kingdom of Portugal and the Kingdom of Castile. Portugal's global explorations in the 16th century, especially, linked continents, economies and cultures to a massive extent. Portugal's exploration and trade with most of the coast of Africa, Eastern South America, and Southern and Eastern Asia, was the first major trade based form of globalization which made a wave of global trade, colonization, and enculturation reached all corners of the world.
Global integration continued through the expansion of European trade in the 16th and 17th centuries, when the Portuguese and Spanish Empires colonized the Americas, followed eventually by France and England. Globalization has had a tremendous impact on cultures, particularly indigenous cultures, around the world. In the 17th century, globalization became a business phenomenon when the British East India Company (founded in 1600), which is often described as the first multinational corporation, was established, as well as the Dutch East India Company (founded in 1602) and the Portuguese East India Company (founded in 1628). Because of the high risks involved with international trade, the British East India Company became the first company in the world to share risk and enable joint ownership of companies through the issuance of shares of stock: an important driver for globalization.
Globalization was achieved by the British Empire (the largest empire in history) due to its sheer size and power. British ideals and culture were imposed on other nations during this period.
The 19th century is sometimes called "The First Era of Globalization." It was a period characterized by rapid growth in international trade and investment between the European imperial powers, their colonies, and, later, the United States.
It was in this period that areas of sub-Saharan Africa and the Island Pacific were incorporated into the world system. The "First Era of Globalization" began to break down at the beginning of the 20th century with the first World War. Said John Maynard Keynes
Globalization is the process, completed in the twentieth century, by which the capitalist world-system spreads across the actual globe. Since that world-system has maintained some of its main features over several centuries, globalization does not constitute a new phenomenon. At the turn of the twenty-first century, the capitalist world economy is in crisis; therefore, according to the theory's leading proponent, the current "ideological celebration of so-called globalization is in reality the swan song of our historical system" (I. Wallerstein, Utopistics, 1998: 32).
Urbanization: in its own historical perspective is more related to natural evolvement of human existence and growth in relation to population of people in a given geographical location. In the work of Jason (2006) “the results of our work show the existing models for the origin of ancient cities may in fact be flawed, urbanism does not appears to have originated with a single powerful ruler or political entity, instead it was the organic outgrowth of many groups coming together.” He further expresses that, to understand patterns of population growth in the earliest urban areas, archaeologists at Tell Brak, located in northern Mesopotamia, in what is today called northern Iraq and northern Syria.
The emergence of the city from the village was made possible by the improvements in plant cultivation and stock-breeding that came with Neolithic culture; in particular, the cultivation of the hard grains that could be produced in abundance and kept over from year to year without spoiling. With the surplus of manpower available as Neolithic man escaped from a subsistence economy, it was possible to draw a larger number of people into other forms of work and service: administration, the mechanical arts, warfare, systematic thought, and religion. So the once-scattered population of Neolithic times, dwelling in hamlets of from ten to fifty houses was concentrated into cities ruled and regimented on a different plan (Childe, 1954).
These early cities bore many marks of their village origins, for they were still in essence agricultural towns this early association of urban growth with food production governed the relation of the city to its neighboring land far longer that many observers now realize. This means that one of the chief determinants of large-scale urbanization has been nearness to fertile agricultural land. One of the outstanding facts about urbanization is that, while the urban population of the globe in 1930 numbered around 415,000,000 souls, or about a fifth of the total population, the remaining fourfifths still lived under conditions approximating that of the Neolithic economy [Sorre, 1952].
In the first stage of urbanization measured with the number and size of cities varied with the amount and productivity of the agricultural land available. Cities were confined mainly to the valleys and flood plains, like the Nile, the Fertile Crescent, the Indus and the Hwang Ho. Increase of population in any one city was therefore limited. The second stage of urbanization began with the development of large-scale river and sea transport and the introduction of roads for chariots and carts. In this new economy the village and the country town maintained the environmental balance of the first stage; but, with the production of grain and oil in surpluses that permitted export, a specialization in agriculture set in and, along with this, a specialization in trade and industry, supplementing the religious and political specialization that dominated the first stage. Both these forms of specialization enabled the city to expand in population beyond the limits of its agricultural hinterland; and, in certain cases, notably in Greek city of Megalopolis, the population in smaller centers was deliberately removed to a single big center ---a conscious reproduction of a process that was taking place less deliberately in other cities. At this stage the city grew by draining away its resources and manpower from the countryside without returning any equivalent goods. Along with this went a destructive use of natural resources for industrial purposes, with increased concentration on mining and smelting.
The third stage of urbanization does not make its appearance until the nineteenth century, and it is only now beginning to reach its full expansion, performance, and influence. If the first stage is one of urban balance and cooperation, and the second is one of partial urban dominance within a still mainly agricultural framework, behind both is an economy that was forced to address the largest part of its manpower toward cultivating the land and improving the whole landscape for human use. The actual amount of land dedicated to urban uses was limited, if only because the population was also limited. This entire situation has altered radically during the last three centuries by reason of a series of related changes. The first is that world population has been growing steadily since the seventeenth century, when the beginning of reasonable statistical estimates, or at least tolerable guesses, can first be made. According to (Woytinskys, 1953)
Thanks to World War II, the idea of building such towns on a great scale, to drain off population from the overcrowded urban centers, took hold. This resulted in the New Towns Act of 1947, which provided for the creation of a series of new towns, fourteen in all, in Britain. This open pattern of town-building, with the towns themselves dispersed through the countryside and surrounded by permanent rural reserves, does a minimum damage to the basic ecological fabric. To the extent that their low residential density, of twelve to fourteen houses per acre, gives individual small gardens to almost every family, these towns not merely maintain a balanced micro-environment but actually grow garden produce whose value is higher than that produced when the land was used for extensive farming or grazing [Block, 1954].
CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATIONS ON BOTH GLOBALIZATION AND URBANIZATION
Globalization: The phenomenon of globalization has many dimensions and it means different things to different people and in different academic disciplines. Economists see it as global capitalism; cultural studies sees it as a form of cultural hybridization (Robertson, 1996); and political scientists see it as a process by which the nation-state is forced to surrender its sovereignty to regional and international political institutions (Strange, 1996). At the very fundamental level, what we mean when we use the term globalization is an increase in worldwide interconnectedness.
Aliyu (2000 in Irmiya)
"Globalization," except in a superficial, journalistic sense, therefore has little meaning and analytical utility in general terms. It is precisely the kind of totalizing or universalizing construct being called into question by postmodern modes of social enquiry (Simon 1996). As the contributions in King (1991) reveal clearly, globalization even has very different meanings in the cultural arena for various academic disciplines. However, some sociologists view globalization in two perspectives-first as a process and second as a product.
The first perspective, globalization as a process-is the process that is fuel by the onslaught of market capitalism throughout the world and accompanying advances in electronic communication and transportation technologies (Allen & Hammett, 1988).
Tom G. Palmer of the Cato Institute defines globalization as "the diminution or elimination of state-enforced restrictions on exchanges across borders and the increasingly integrated and complex global system of production and exchange that has emerged as a result." Globalization is often used to refer to economic globalization, that is, integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, and the spread of technology.
Second perspective as a product-is seen an the product of the developed emergence which had already created its structure in business such as e-commerce, ICT, corporate hegemony and capitalism
Urbanization on the other side, according to the 2005 Revision of the UN Urbanization is the increase of the population in cities compared to the overall population of a region, country or the world as a whole. Also urbanization refers to a process in which an increasing proportion of an entire population lives in cities and the suburbs of cities. Historically, it has been closely connected with industrialization.
However, industrialization is a situation when more and more inanimate sources of energy were used to enhance human productivity, surpluses increased in both agriculture and industry. Larger and larger proportions of a population could live in cities. Economic forces were such that cities became the ideal places to locate factories and their workers.
Dungwom (2003 in Irmiya 2009) defined urbanization as the progressive concentration of population in towns and cities through different process.
These definitions above the clarity of the two concepts as one deal with market economy in relations to price control and the one talk about the population of people in a given area or the nature of habitation of people in a given region.
Characteristics Features of Both Globalization and Urbanization
Globalization:
A striking feature of globalization is the very fact of social change expressed in a “multiplicity of transitions” occurring simultaneously at several and in some cases mutually contradictory levels. These multiplicities of changes occur in different ways for different economies, different cities and different agents within them. The effects, which can either be positive or negative, are manifest in a wide array of contexts—from the social and cultural to the economic, environmental and political. While one section of humanity is growing and developing as a result of integration to global markets, the other wallows in increasing despondency and despair, including in those parts of the world that are believed to have benefited enormously from economic globalization. This chapter examines how economic globalization affects countries and regions within countries differently depending on a range of factors, including the level of integration of the local economy into the global economy, the national and local policy context and degree of decentralization of power; the influence of different institutions in each country and locality and demographic characteristics. The chapter specifically looks at how uneven globalization reinforces preexisting social and economic differences within African cities.
Globalization is geneally facilitated with use of ICT Information and Communication Technology which stands as the key factors for global systems such as internet, GSM phone, parcel post and much other poster agent transfer
Alubo (2009) identifies the following as the main features of globalization:
1. Interdependence and integration,
2. Collapse of commodity prices
3. Difficult to distinguished between national and international financial problems,
4. There is dominance in British Woods Institutions (BWI)
5. There are nations dependence
To Alubo, globalization is characterized with a high level of interdependence of nations to nations without necessarily taken into cognizance of the barriers of boundaries and restriction. Regulation of prices of commodity is not longer
Urbanization: however, urbanization has the following main feature
1. better infrastructure,
2. bigger market,
3. individualization
4. Industrialization
5. densely populated environment and
6. social welfare
Challenges of Globalization and Urbanization
Globalization:
Political disfranchisement: most of the country especially the third world countries are not succinctly having their fundamental sovereignty rather they are relegated to sub minor existence of species, neo-colonialism to the highest oder
Exploitation of foreign impoverished workers: The deterioration of protections for weaker nations by stronger industrialized powers has resulted in the exploitation of the people in those nations to become cheap labor. Due to the lack of protections, companies from powerful industrialized nations are able to offer workers enough salary to entice them to endure extremely long hours and unsafe working conditions, though economists question if consenting workers in a competitive employers' market can be decried as "exploitated". The abundance of cheap labor is giving the countries in power incentive not to rectify the inequality between nations. If these nations developed into industrialized nations, the army of cheap labor would slowly disappear alongside development. It is true that the workers are free to leave their jobs, but in many poorer countries, this would mean starvation for the worker, and possible even his/her family if their previous jobs were unavailable
Low productivity in the poorer countries: Most of the third world countries are sometimes at disadvantage side as most of their activities is based on agricultural products, although it is true that globalization encourages free trade among countries, there are also negative consequences because some countries try to save their national markets. The main export of poorer countries is usually agricultural goods. Larger countries often subsidise their farmers (like the EU Common Agricultural Policy, which lowers the market price for the poor farmer's crops compared to what it would be under free trade
Global inequality: globalization results to global inequality because it makes some countries to be at the receiving ends while some at the loosing ends. Global inequality was estimated at around 65 Gini points, whereas the new numbers indicate global inequality to be at 70 on the Gini scale. It is unsurprising that the level of international inequality is so high, as larger sample spaces almost always give a higher level of inequality. In December 2007, World Bank economist Branko Milanovic has called much previous empirical research on global poverty and inequality into question because, according to him, improved estimates of purchasing power parity indicate that developing countries are worse off than previously believed. Milanovic remarks that "literally hundreds of scholarly papers on convergence or divergence of countries’ incomes have been published in the last decade based on what we know now were faulty numbers."
Global conflicts, such as the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States of America, is interrelated with globalization because it was primary source of the "war on terror", which had started the steady increase of the prices of oil and gas, due to the fact that most OPEC member countries were in the Arabian Peninsula.
Dumping of the locally manufactured product
Urbanization
Displacement of Nature because many elements supplied by nature, necessary for both health and mental balance, will be lacking as a result of urbanization
Destructive use of natural resources. These are used for industrial purposes, with increased concentration on mining and smelting in order to have a concentrated environment named city or urban.
Land degradation: since urbanization is more of development in the physical and basic infrastructures, so the possibility of derogating the land surface is very high.
Pollution: this as a results of industrial activities since the majority of the urban environment are dominated by at every angles of the urban centre industries and other intensive commercial activities
Problems of land for agricultural purposes, social problems and anti-social vices like criminal activities and adjustment behaviour of the inhabitants all these are yet another serious challenges of urbanization
Benefits of Globalization and Urbanization
Globalization:
Alubo (2009) summarizes the following as the major advantages of globalization:
1. Market liberalization,
2. Process of increasing economic, political, and social interdependence,
3. World without boundaries,
4. It has made trade from far possible and
5. It has turn the world into a global village
Urbanization:
1. It brings about industrialization
2. High standard of living of people
3. It create employment opportunity
4. It gives an international recognition
In conclusion, without much ado one will observe that globalization is more relative to internationalization-refers to importance of international trade, relations, treaties and other relative variables in persuading the prospective partners. While urbanization deals mostly with industrialization-the use of more animate sources of energy for the enhancement of human productivity
Globalization is equally a concept within human imagination and creativity while urbanization can be view as a natural phenomenon which evolves as a result of human activities.
Globalization is a concept often used or develops within the discipline of social sciences while urbanization can see in more of environmental sciences or studies.
Globalization is a close concept with capitalism which deals chiefly with the exploitation of human power and initiatives, financial resources but urbanization in its own context deals chiefly with exploitation of natural environment and it involve large portion of land.










References:
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Alubo O. (2009). Sociology of Development. Lecture note unpublished
Jason, Ur (2006). Origin of Urbanization. Harvard University
David Simon, (1996). Urbanization, globalization, and economic crisis in Africa
Block, Geoffrey D. M. (1954) The Spread of Towns. (London: Conservative Political Centre. 57 pp.)
Chossudovsky, Michel (2003) Globalization of Poverty and the new world order. (2.ed.). Imprint Shanty Bay, Ont. Global Outlook,
Wade, Robert Hunter (2001). 'The Rising Inequality of World Income Distribution', Finance & Development, Vol 38, No 4
Childe, V. Gordon (1942) What Happened in History (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. 288 pp.)
Xabier Gorostiaga (1995)."World has become a 'champagne glass' globalization will fill it fuller for a wealthy few' National Catholic Reporter,
Childe, V. Gordon (1954) Early Forms of Society. (in [Singer et alii, 1954:38--57].)
Irmiya (2009) Urbanization/Transportation and related issues. Lecture Note Unpuplished
Keyes, Fenton (1951) Urbanism and Population Distribution in China (American Journal of Sociology, LVI, No. 6, pp. 519-27.)
Webber, Adna Ferrin (1899) The Growth of Cities in the Nineteenth Century: A Study in Statistics. (New York: Macmillan Co. 495 pp.)
Wallerstein. 1974a. "The Rise and Future Demise of the of the World-Capitalist System: Concepts for Comparative Analysis." Comparative Studies in Society and History 16: 387-415.
--. 1974b. The Modern World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century. New York: Academic Press.
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__. 1998. Utopistics: Or, Historical Choices of the Twenty-First Century. New York: The New Press.
__. 2000. "The Twentieth Century: Darkness at Noon?" Keynote address, PEWS conference, Boston.


BY
MEDAYESE FELIX JIMOH
DEPARTMENT OF ARTS/SOCIAL SCIENCE
SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF JOS

Teacher The Panacea of Environmental Education

INTRODUCTION
Over the last fifteen years, an awareness of the subject of environmental education has grown at formal and non-formal levels in Nigeria. Within the formal system in Nigeria, environmental education is taught as part of other school subjects such as social studies geography and integrated science. A great deal of effort has been invested by the Nigeria Educational Research Development Council (NERDC) to infuse the environmental education concept into many subjects in the junior and senior secondary school curricula.
The Science Teachers’ Association of Nigeria on its own part is pursuing a regimen of training for environmental educators for the school system through its annual workshops.
In their work was an evaluation of the teachers’ knowledge of environmental issues and examination of the delivery of environmental education in schools. They further revealed a heightened awareness of environmental issues among Nigerians’ teachers. This also showed a preference for certain teaching strategies in the delivery of environmental education by the teachers. However the participating teachers state that they may not be able to teach environmental education as a core subject because of the number of subjects being taught at secondary school levels.
Environmental Education which is an organized efforts to teach about how natural environments function and, particularly, how human beings can manage their behavior and ecosystems in order to live a sustainable life. Environment is the utmost important part of our lives. It is concerned with the surroundings in which we live and cherish our life. Protection of environment is everyone’s duty. So environmentally educated teachers are needed in order to teach the contents of environmental education effectively. Conservation of environment is not taken seriously by people, there is a “who cares” attitude or “the little I pollute, how does it matter much?” This attitude is because of lack of environmental education to create good orientation and environmental issues.
The goal of environmental education is to develop a world population that is aware of and concerned about the environment and its associated problems and who has the knowledge, skills, attitudes, motivations and commitment to work individually and collectively towards solution of current environmental problems and prevention of new ones. School system provides the largest organized base for environmental education and action. It offers an effective instrument for embedding in them the desirable environmental ethics. Teacher is one of the chief significant factors, which is bound to affect the teaching of environmental education. Teachers who are properly trained with environmental concepts can provide a vital link in the delivery of environmental knowledge, its associated problems and their solutions.
Reasons why teachers has failed in effective delivery of Environmental Education through social studies (Nigeria in Focus)
Teachers are supposed to be the vessels through which the gospel of environmental education can be impacted to the live of learners. So teachers are seen as the four runners of effective delivery of any curricula activities. Being important change agents in the education enterprise, teachers are therefore at the heart of any successful effort to promote environmental education (Okebukola et al. 1997; Disinger 1984). The overall expectation is that teachers’ could be a corpus of environmental educators that could serve as the agent in the spread of the message of sustainable development and environmental protection. But teachers had failed for the effective delivery of environmental education as a result of the following reasons:
1. Professionalism (Poor Professional Values, Professional Knowledge/dispositions and Professional Development.)
2. Poor Content Of Teaching
3. Poor practice of teaching (Communication, classroom Management/instruction, planning/evaluation and Consideration of Individual Needs, Abilities/Disabilities and Aspirations )
4. Teachers’ limited knowledge of ecological concepts and environmental issues
5. Teachers’ look worm attitude
Professional skill and training: Insufficient teacher training has been identified as a major cause of curriculum failure in Environmental Education (UNESCO; 1997, Knapp; 2000, Mckeown-Ice, 2000). Teacher are expected to be professionally trained in related field especially in the area of environmental education such as Foundational competencies in professional education, Competencies in environmental education content, but very high numbers of the teachers are not environmentally educated. Olusanya (2008) Reasons accounting for this belief may probably stem from the sense of ill-preparedness and low professional confidence with regards to their content and pedagogical knowledge of the current environmental issues and problems. .
Poor content of teaching: The teachers failed to base the content of their teaching on clearly defined aims, objectives and learning outcomes as laid down by education authorities and agreed within the profession which has lead to unsound knowledge and understanding of the subject matter, processes of inquiry, concepts and skills, plan their teaching on the basis of recent, relevant pedagogical research
Poor practice of teaching: A lot of teachers fail to establish expectations that are clear, challenging and achievable for students; use a wide variety of fair and consistent assessment strategies and instruments for diagnostic, formative and summative evaluation relate assessment strategies and instruments to learning objectives, content and tasks. Ineffectively select and sequence learning activities, manage and pace teaching time to achieve planned student outcomes and also fail to apply a variety of human, material and technological resources to maximise learning as impartial as possible when discussing controversial matters like environmental issues with students.
Teachers’ limited knowledge about ecological concepts and environmental issues: teachers who are not environmentally educated will encounter problems in the proper delivery of environmental issues
Teachers look worm attitude: Just as revealed in Olusanya (2008) the infusion of EE generated concerns and anxieties from the teachers, who viewed the infusion as overloading of the already loaded curricula. In 1996 the Science Teachers’ Association of Nigeria (STAN) through its National Environmental Education Project (NEEP) commenced, a regimen of training for environmental educators (i.e. train-the-trainers workshop) as a response to growing teachers’ concern regarding overloading of curriculum. (Okebukola et.al. (1997).
Organized on annual basis, the workshops presented opportunities for secondary school science teachers, to learn about the strategies which can best allow easy assimilation of knowledge (Thiele and Treagust 1991; Okebukola 1996); as well as, facilitate students’ understanding of environmental concepts or principles (Ahove 1997). From the above statement one will understand that, the teachers’ attitude is a very strong factor militating against the actualization of the goals of environmental education.
Conclusions: Teachers needed to have more knowledge, skills and change in attitude for them to be able to deliver the goals and objective of environmental education for sustainable living of man in the society. Since the teacher as posits by Ukairo (1978) is the one who help to make society what it is. Therefore, teachers are encouraged to acquire more knowledge related to environmental concepts and issues.
References:
Disinger, J. (2007). Field Instruction in school settings. ERIC/SMEAC 1984 [cited
September 15 2007]. Available from http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-922/settings.htm.
Okebukola, Peter. (1996). And the barrier to meaningful learning of science came tumbling down. In Inaugural Lecture. Ojo, Lagos: Lagos State University Press.
Okebukola, Peter, M. Ahove, A Kola-Olusanya, Ben Akpan, and M. Ogunsola-Bandele. (1997). Teachers' perception of the effectiveness of strategies for teaching concepts on the environment. In Strategies for Environmental Education: Focus on Global Warming, Greenhouse effect and ozone Layer Depletion, edited by P. Okebukola and B. Akpan. Port Harcourt, Nigeria: African Pep Publishers.
Gruenewald, D.A. (2004). A Foucauldian analysis of environmental education: toward the socioecological challenge of the Earth Charter, Curriculum Inquiry 34(1):71-107.
Ahove, M. (1997). The use of analogies in teaching some concepts on the environment. In Strategies for environmental education: Focus on global warming, greenhouse effect and ozone layer depletion, edited by P. Okebukola and B. Akpan
Thiele, R. B., and D. F. Treagust. (1991). Using analogies in secondary chemistry teaching. Australian Science Teachers' Journal 37 (2):10-14.
Olusanya, A. K (2008). Environmental Education in Nigeria: A Look beyond the Infusion Problem. Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto
Environmentally Educated Teachers The Priority of Priorities? Unesco-Unep Environmental Education Newsletter Vol. XV, No. 1, March 1990
UNESCO. (1997). Educating for a sustainable future: A transdisciplinary vison for concerted action. UNESCO Publication No. EPD-97/Conf.401/CLD.1). Paris: UNESCO.
Knapp, D. (2000). The Thessaloniki Declaration: A wake-up call for environmental education? Journal of Environmental Education, 31 (3), 32-39.
Mckeown-Ice, R. (2000). Environmental education in the United States: A survey of pre-service teacher education programs. Journal of Environmental Education, 32(1), 4-11.
http://www.ifev.edu.vu/students/teacher_profile.html

Tuesday 17 March 2009

THE NATURE, PROPLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF THE MIDDLE BELT REGION OF NIGERIA

THE MIDDLE BELT GEO-POLITICAL ZONE OF NIGERIA

INTRODUCTION

Nigeria is a federal constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal Capital Territory. The country is located in West Africa between latitudes 40 and 140 North and Longitude 30 and 150 east, with total land area of 923.8x103sqkm bordered with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in the north. Its coast lies on the Gulf of Guinea, a part of the Atlantic Ocean, in the south. The capital city is Abuja. The three largest and most influential ethnic groups in Nigeria are the Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. The country Nigeria is generally comprises six geo-political zones, which includes South West, South South, South East, North West, North East and North Central or Central Nigeria known as the middle belt of Nigeria.

The people of Nigeria have an extensive history, and archaeological evidence shows that human habitation of the area dates back to at least 9000 BCE The Benue-Cross River area is thought to be the original homeland of the Bantu migrants who spread across most of central and southern Africa in waves between the 1st millennium BCE and the 2nd millennium CE.

(A). NATURE OF THE MIDDLE BELT

Historical background

The Middle Belt concept and idea as a geo-political zone predominantly based on political ideology for the separate political identity by the people of the zone this was swept away by the tide of time, even though it may be argued that the 1995 draft constitutional conference recommended the creation of six geo-political zones in the country, which the Middle Belt Region was one. However, its antagonists re-christened it to the North Central zone to suit their interest and the appellation stuck to this day. Hon. Abba Moro the Executive Chairman of Opokwu Local Government Area of Benue State states that “historically, the search for a Middle Belt Region was pioneered by the late Chief Joseph Sarwan Tarka, of blessed memory. The movement for the Middle Belt Region assumed prominence during the First Republic when various nationalities sought to assert their identities on the political landscape of Nigeria. The agitation for a Middle Belt Region was part of this scenario, and partly also as a result of the not too well disposed political magnanimity of the modern political lords/helmsmen towards the members of this region”

According to Joses (2005) The Middle Belt of Nigeria has been a hotbed of agitations, struggle and conflict since the period before independence. Between 1928 and 1948 most ethnic groups experienced the world economic recession with its antecedent scarcity and socio-economic insecurity. They began to form communal unions not only to address the insecurity created by the world economic recession and the impact of the Second World War. However, what ignited ethnic insecurity in the Middle Belt was heightened by colonial policy that failed to integrate their interests into the larger frame work of Nigerian nation. The tempo became vibrant in 1950s with ethnic emotion, feelings and sentiments. In fact the history of minority agitation started from the Middle Belt over domination suffered not only by colonial repression but also by forcefully being made to be subject to the northern praetorian emirate system. The area was not only denied infrastructural development but deprived of its independent traditional political system. The agitation from the Middle Belt later ignited similar struggles from other parts of the country.

The Middle Belt is a political expression of ethnic minorities in the former Northern region which are found in the North-west, North-east and particularly North-central, which have been oppressed by both colonial rule and praetorian emirate system of the north and their contemporary political leaderships. Under the new dispensation of geo-political zoning of the federation the concept has been restricted to North-central and thereby obliterating the name North-central from the political lexicon of Nigeria. Meanwhile, the late head of state General Sani Abacha in his October 1, 1995 independent broadcast while presenting the 1995 constitution zoned the country into six political areas: North-west, North-east, Middle Belt, South-east, South-west and Southern Minority. While the Southern minority protested and preferred to be called South-south, the Middle Belt with time had been changed, by those who are repugnant to the concept, to North central. Nevertheless, the concept is bigger than any specific geo-political zone. The concept of Middle Belt is nebulous as some states like Kaduna, Niger, Kwara, Yobe, Borno and Adamawa,which have a concentration of Hausa-Fulani and some major ethnic minorities, who are Moslems (Nupe, Kanuri etc), and do see themselves more of 'Lugard North' than belonging to the belt. There is also a marginal ethnic-minority like the Yoruba (Kwara, Kogi), whose interest and loyalty are also divided; as they prefer to identify with the South West Yorubaland when the going is bad or who would want to benefit from both sides. However, Middle Belt therefore, is encompassing and can be seen as a political entity situated within the vast Savannah region of Nigeria, which has the concentration of ethnic-communal groups who majority practice African traditional religion or Christianity. They have their peculiar multifarious political systems, religious beliefs and cultural orientations, which are non Islamic and different from the Hausa-Fulani emirate system. In the words of Richard Sklar, the Middle Belt area comprise of people who were either non-Hausa speaking, non-Muslim or both.

However, the region is constituted by eight states of the federation which includes; Kogi, Kwara, Niger, Plateau, Nasarawa, Benue, Adamawa, Taraba and the Federal Capital Territory of the federation as a result of ethno-minority situation in trying to re-assert the independent entity, the place has for long become an alluring bride for many suitors, conscious of the strategic part it plays in deciding the outcome of an election. Straddling the middle of Nigeria, the middle Belt is a relatively big complex multi-ethnic, multi-religious geographical area, where unlike the Hausa-Fulani and the Kanuris of the far north, is populated largely by minority ethnic groups. Its politics is no complex, swinging between an uneasy attachment to the far north and sometimes an open or cautious solidarity and alliance with southern-based parties. No wonder it has since the pre-independence days been a fertile fishing water pond for the big three ethnic groups in the country in their quest for political dominance.

Geography and Vegetation of the Middle Belt

The middle Belt is located at the central point of Nigeria characterized with guinea savannah and marked by crystalline rock outcroppings and gently rolling hills, such as the adamawa hill, Biu Mountain and Jos plateau. The two major or notable rivers in Nigeria, River Niger and Benue meet at the region precisely at Lokoja town in Kogi state. The two major seasons are the raining season from the month of April through October and dry season from November through March. The temperature is also relative from state to states as it is relatively cold weather in Jos plateau while other states are predominantly with hot weather condition.

Architecture:

The Middle belt regions of Nigeria are predominantly rural environs except those of the states capitals and some other sub-towns around the capital city. Therefore, the building patterns and structures are usually with mud and thatched roofs in the villages.

However, the house patterns and structure in the urban environments or centres are to greater extent measured with the modern day housing pattern like what are obtainable in towns like Jos, Ilorin, Yola, Lokoja, Minna, Markudi, Abuja etc where good housing plans, streets, water channel, and lightning systems are well constructed

Political Activities

The political activities of middle belt people will be incomprehensive without a bit of traces back their political struggle as part of the movement and the primary factor for the existence and the actualization of the region today. The middle belt however is much more than an attractive bride waiting to be plucked by the lucky suitor. It has other attributes.

Chief Solomon Daushep Lar, a prominent advocate of this cause thinks he knows the true significance of the area in Nigeria. A middle Belt conference he convened in August 1998, the first civilian governor of the old Plateau state and one-time National chairman of the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) stated that "because the Middle Belt is located in central Nigeria, which comprise the people of southern and northern Nigeria, it is always in the best position to interpret the north to the south and the south to the north. Not only do we serve as the glue for the country, our privileged location enables us to best measure the temperature of the nation. This role places enormous responsibility on our shoulders, and also requires that both the north and the south must listen carefully to us anytime we speak on contentious issues".

This is chief Lar's understanding and the place of the middle Belt in the corporate entity called Nigeria. Indeed even before the emergences of the Lars on the political scene, the area had been under going some kind of rethinking on its place in Nigeria and its politics. The birth of the United Middle Belt Congress (UMBC) in the late 1940's was the culmination of such rethinking and the search by the area for relevance in national politics. The founding fathers of the UMBC such as the late Rwang Pam, Yonah Asadugu, Bello Jacob Ijumu, Pastor David Lot, among many others invested enormous amount of their time and resources to see to the realization of the goals of the area through political activities.

Economic Activities

The main activities for sustainability are farming, fishing, hunting, trading, weaving, blacksmithing, tying and dying mat making, and some other sub minor petty trading across the region although the predominant economic activities are farming and fishing as a result of their fertile nature of land and the presence of river Niger and Benue around Kogi, Benue, part of Niger, and some other related areas nearby the riverine environs, mining amongst Jos Plateau people, weaving of clothe and canoe building among the Nupe people of Niger.

Agriculture/Soil type

Since, the average populace of the region are predominantly farmer their concentration however is basically on subsistence farming i.e. farming consumptions of the immediate family. Therefore, relatively few of these people produced agricultural product on commercial basis couple with the low level of mechanise farming because most of their farming activities is still intensively on communal effort.

The types of crops growing in the middle belt of Nigeria are tuber crops such as yam, cassava, cocoa-yam, potatoes, cereals such as millet and maize, economic trees such as Iroko, obeche and mahogany, fruits such as citrus fruit, guava, and some other related crops growing commercial purposes. The nature of the land of the region is relative from states to states just as the South Eastern region soil is more fertile than every other parts of the region. The soil generally in the middle belt is relatively sandy-loam type of soil while parts are reddish in colour and sticky.

Social/Per-Social

Social and religious institutions among the people of middle belt is strongly base on traditions, norms, belief system, folkways and taboos of each tribe within a given state of the region because of heterogenous nature of their culture and languages such the Birom and Ngas of plateau, Okun and Igala of Kogi, Nupe of Niger, Idoma and Tiv of Benue, Eggon of Nasarrawa, Omu-aran of Kwara and lot more at the various states of the region.

The region to a large extent control social vices through their culture and the established rules and regulations lay down by their Ancestor. There are still element of moral consensus among the people their tribal and cultural activities or festival where the youth are taught roles and responsibility to imbibe by in order to fit in and capable of helping himself out of future problems

Socialization process of the children among the people of the region is still to a greater extent in the rural areas on imitation such learning the occupation of their parents such as farming, fishing or even some skills like swimming by those that lives around the riverine area.

However, Christianity, Islam and other social institutions such education, clubs and related societies have some kind of influences on the ways of life of the people in the region such as their mode of dressing, food they eat, language, crafts and other activities

Transportation systems

Transportation as the process of conveying goods and services from one destination to another has been from time immemorial. Therefore, transportation is inevitable to any given society rather they could be a point of peculiarities in those means of transportation, middle belt is characterized majorly by road transports, inland waterway, and fewer places with railway transportation network and airway. These transports systems are head porterage, bicycle, motor-cycle, canoe peddling, lorries, horse, camel, cars, Aeroplane in places like Jos Plateau, Ilorin, Minna, Markudi, Yola etc. Roads are constructed both by the central and regional governments liking these states to one another which equally help their trading activities from states to states.

Health

Health wise is also a critical issue in the middle belt where a lot of traditional herbal medicine is applied or used for different kinds of sicknesses and problems are equally diagnose through appriori method i.e. using the knowledge of Mr A to solve a similar case of Mr B in their traditional setting and up till the present day of existence even as the government and corporate bodies establishes Hospitals for proper health care the traditional herbal medicine are still in used for the curing of many diseases like typhoid fever, measles, malaria, and some other critical bone fractures especially among the rural dwellers of the region.

(B). PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES OF THE MIDDLE BELT

Political problems

The middle belt region had been for so long subjected to political prejudice and other related problems. Chimaroke (2005) lamented that “the seeming tension in the Middle Belt arose variously from, competing ethnic identities, inter /intra-religious differences, disputes over arable/gracing land and scarce rural resources, contests over chieftaincy/political representations and access to power. By the same token, it was reasonably argued that the measure of ascendance of these elements of conflict arise from political competition, bias, stereotype, prejudices, elite manipulation, inequity, mass poverty and brash attitude of the noveau riche. It is also stated to include protracted national economic crisis, excessive centrality of national administration, long period of military rule, arbitrariness of rules, unclear citizenship identification and of course, a supra-national interest in lands and locality matters”

(C). PROSPECTS OR WAY FORWARD FOR THE MIDDLE BELT CHALLENGES:

References:

Ochoche, Sunday (anchorman): (1998) Enhancing Peaceful Coexistence in Nigeria (communiqué of Middle Belt Zonal Conference, Jos); Centre for Peace Research & Conflict Resolution, National War College

:http://www.nigerdeltacongress.com/darticles/dynamics_of_ethnic_and_religious.htm

Haruna Isah (200) The Middle Belt: History and politics Nasarawa Publishing Company Limited

Iloeje, p. (2000). Geography of Nigeria Development

Bagudu, Nankin (ed.): Linguistic Minorities and Inequality in Nigeria; League for Human Rights, Jos; 2003.

Abba, Morro (2005). What the Middle Belt Agenda should be

Atang Izang (2008). The Arewa Consultative Forum

Ajayi, P. O. (2003). Comprehensive Geography for Senior Secondary Schools. Jos: Johnson

Chimaroke Nnamani (2005). Nigeria Central the Middle Belt, Glue Of The Nation. 2005 edition of the public lecture series of the Nigerian Union of Journalists (NUJ) Plateau State Council, in conjunction with Africa Republic Foundation (ARF); Hill Station Hotel, Jos, Nigeria.

Monday 16 March 2009

The use of instructional materials in social studies instructions

OVERVIEW OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
Studies on the use of instructional materials have been carried out and reported by several investigators including those of Anyanwu (2003), Buba (2003), Adeyanju (1986, 1988 and1999), Akanbi and Imogie (1988), Agun (1986 in Adeyanju 1999) Pointed out the need for development of skills by teachers undergoing their training so that they could be able to use a wide variety of instructional materials sufficiently well. The various researchers founded that teachers who are trained and untrained, sue some form of materials to teach their lessons. However, the relevance of choice of instructional materials types that were used and the quality of the instructional materials types that teachers use have not been investigated.
Some investigators claim that whenever they taught with some of the learning aids, their students get more stimulated because the learning aids help the students to become more attentive. In addition, students positive attitude generate more interest for the lesson they teach. As a result, students participate better in activity.
Wornski (1981 in Bozimo 2002) described social studies as “a multifaceted; mosaic; patchwork quit; a collage of forms, structures and colours”. In line with the above statement, Bozimo (20002) further expressed that, “this peculiar nature makes it possible and necessary for great variety of resource materials and methodologies to be employed in social studies teaching and learning”.
Social studies is a problem solving discipline and dynamic in nature which make the use of instructional materials in its instructions to be indispensable. Gagnes (1915 in Anyanwu 2003) states that, “instead of the teachers explaining social studies concepts and how to solve problems, they should provide the students with appropriate materials and encourage them to make observations from the hypotheses guiding students to discover new ideas by asking leading question”.
According to Jimoh (1987) in his paper presentation titled “creating your own media or materials” delivered at the college of education, Maiduguri in Borno state Nigeria. In the process of his paper presentation he asked this question-when students are not listening to you or others, what are they doing? They could be looking out of the window or to bare walls or playing with one another” therefore, to get hold of the situation teachers could surround them with interesting materials. Another persisting question teachers ask is that, “won’t audio visuals such as mobile television distract the attention of the students from teachers”? Others suggested that, if they keep distraction at a minimum then student will be more attentive in class.
The term instructional materials have been conceptualized by different authorities, but the fact still remain that instructional materials aids teaching and learning situation. Esu (2004) instructional materials refer to “all the resources within the reach of the teacher and the learners which are employed to facilitate teaching and learning. It therefore follows that such materials may be both human and non-human provided they facilitate the acquisition and evaluation of knowledge, skills, attitudes, morals and values”.
Orakwue (2000:96) assert that, “materials resources are mainly objects of any type which the social studies instructor might deem very necessary or adequate in delivering his social studies lesson. They form part of what we normally call teaching aids. He further maintained that teaching aids are mere objects of help in the successful delivery of social studies lessons and other lesson generally, social studies resources are information repositories from where relevant social studies teaching information could be sourced for transfer to the learners during classroom instruction”. Hence, it can be deduced that social studies instructions will definitely remain worthless without the use of instructional materials.
“Instructional media today are very gradually finding their ways into the classrooms where modern and versatile teachers are exploring new ways of transferring learning to the younger generation. The use of prints, visuals and audios or various combination of these trios make up all we have in instructional media. instructional media therefore are the information dissemination devices made up of prints radio picture including films, movies, photographs, etc, used in the classroom for an easy transfer of learning” {chuba 2000}.
From the above description of instructional materials, one can conclude that, instructional materials are those objects, materials, and things, improvised and used by a teacher to concretize conceptual Abstraction in learning.
“Instructional materials are any media which promotes perceptions, Understand transfer of knowledge and retention of ideas” (Ivork 1971). Brunner (1956) says that, “instructional materials are what help the Students to realize their learning objective’’ instructional materials as acts of giving help normally by teachers to provide help and encouragement in students or pupils learning activities. It can also refer to all tools which can easily be used be a teacher to correct wrong impressions and to illustrate things that learners cannot forget easily (Ema & Ajayi 2004).
Instructional materials are valuable assets in learning situations, because they make lessons practical and realistic. Knowledge acquired with the use of instructional materials is retained longer than the one acquired without learning aids.
2.2 TYPES AND KINDS OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
Different types and variety of Instructional materials are available to be used in teaching any subject effectively. However, it is not all topics that require the same type and quantity of instructional materials. As far as social studies instructions is concerned. These materials could be purchased, locally made or improvised, imported from other countries when necessary for the effective teaching of social Studies.
Adekeye (2008) summarized instructional materials available for instruction in social studies into four major categories: Visual aid–these include pictures, maps, chants, graphs, diagrams, chalkboard, sketches, atlas and painting; Audio visual aids–television, computer programmes, film trips, video recording and projectors; Auditory aids–audio recordings, radios, records or cassette tapes, music and Printed materials-Encyclopedias, textbooks, magazines, journals, newspapers, pamphlets novels poems , simulation games, government records and publications almanacs, biographic, editorial cartoons and case studies.
Bozimo (2002) asserts that “generally, Instructional materials available for use in social studies education can be categorized into three, namely’ reading materials, audio-visual materials and community resources? She further expressed that the materials can simply be reduced to two groups namely reading materials and non-reading materials. In the cause of this study, the researcher will like to discuss the types and kinds of instructional materials used in social studies under the following categories:
A. Projected and electronic materials.
B. Non-projected materials.
C. phenomenal and manipulative materials
(A) Projected and electronic materials
Projected and electronic materials are forms of media which could be visual, audio and audio-visual in nature that requires projection and electricity in their using process for teaching and learning situation. Emma & Ajayi (2004) categorized projected and electronic media into the following: film/film projectors, video cassette / video Disc machines, tape recorders/recordings; radio, slide projectors, overhead transparencies/overhead projectors, opaque projectors (Episcope) and computer.
(i). Films/film projectors, Ajayi (2004) describe films/film projectors are 16mm wide and are shown using a 16mm projector, some are designed to help teach facts and exact steps of procedure. Others are suitable for general orientation to a subject. Still others are effective in developing understanding of complex in societal historical problems and for influencing attitudes. Although, projecting educational films is not always the issue but the effective use of it to portray the ideas of the content of the lessons or topics in hand and the teacher process of using it might be something else that the students would not be able to comprehend the factual information of the lesson taught using the materials.
(ii). Video cassette/Video Disc machines, these are essentially a television receiver minus or without a display tube. They have facilities for recording television and other video inputs and for playing back programmes recorded on video cassette. Ema (2006) state that, many machine have the ability to “freeze” the picture at a given frame, or to “slow motion” feature that have obvious advantages in educational situation. Since the media have the ability of freezing the picture at given frame, it then shows that it can be used to teach social studies students, different concrete issues at the students’ pase While, video disc is a disc on which visual objects, with or without are electronically recorded.
(iii). Tape recorders; are medias used in an educational setting to play back pre-recorded audio lessons or activities to a class to provide illustrative audio materials in the context of ‘live’ lesson or activities. These could be either be bought or improvised by the teacher or recorded off-air. Ema and Ajayi (2004) argued that, recording have been used successfully in the teaching of languages and laboratories on the handling of equipment. They expressed further that, “As with all other aids, the effective use of the tape recorder demands careful planning. Its real value derives from its ability to augment visual with audio stimuli. Use in a casual manner its impact declines while diminishing returns set in quickly”.
(iv). Radio: this is audio kinds of media which could either uses battery or electric power in appealing to the sense of hearing. It is a media for communication and it is used in the process of delivering lesson such topic as communication in social studies as instructional materials for the pupils or students to perceive the concept in a practical manner.
Slide/Slide projector: A slide is a single positive image or transparent materials (a slide transparency) held in a mount and designed for projection (Ajayi 2006). She further expressed that, if properly designed, slides can be of great assistance to a teacher in providing visual reinforcement for what he is saying, are particularly useful for showing photographs, diagrams and other graphic materials.
Too-much information should not be included on a slide. Thus, an educational or social studies slide should be clear, simple, and capable of being seen and understood from all parts of the classroom in which it is being projected.
(v). Overhead transparencies/Overhead projectors: Ajayi & Ema (2004) the overhead projector (OHP) consists of a horizontal table (250 × 250m) on which the materials to be projected is placed. Light from the bulb below the table is condensed by a concave mirror or by a fresnellens, passes through the materials to be projected and is focused and turned through 900 by a lens system mounted on a stalk on bracket above the table. The material to be projected is usually a transparency.
An overhead transparency is a transparent sheet of material intended for use with an overhead projector as a means of showing graphic, textual and other information.
(vi). Opaque projector: this is a media that projects the image of solid objects on a screen by means of a light, which is concentrated on those objects and a mirror, which reflects the image through a lens. Solid materials or objects like models, pictures, maps charts, and graphs can bee shown through opaque projector with clarity.
(vii). Computer instructional system: Computer as an electro-mechanical machines which is used as an instructional system in the spheres of education-is an elector-mechanical media which accept data, process and give output automatically with less energy waste. Computer automatically process data once it is directed to do so. Nwoji (2002 in Ajayi 2003) however, noted that the computer is among the newer generation education technologies in developing countries such as Nigeria. Computer instructional materials is a method by which individualized instruction is under taken, it is an extention of programmed instruction the computer is used to present instructional events that are designed, developed and produced for an individualized learning situation.
The computer has now been found to be the most suitable, and versatile medium for individualized learning because of its immense capacity as a data processor, using for different games for the children. And can perform numerous mathematical and logical operations without any intervention by men.
Computer as an instructional material is used in many ways in social studies instructions such as mass instruction, group learning, individualized instructions, computer conferencing system among others. Nwoji (2002) acknowledge three broad ways by which computer contributed to teaching and learning situations. And these are mass instruction, individualized instruction and group learning.
- Mass instruction: this is used during the normal class lesson (conventional expository lesson), the computer is used to support mass instruction. Computer-assisted package are highly interactive as they are very effective in teaching large group to get the feel of an interactive learning programme.
- Individualized instruction: Nwoji opined that, computer constitutes the most versatile and powerful delivery system. Students should be given the opportunity to learn by doing “experimental learning” as they do, they get things wrong as well as get them right. He further gives example of individualized instruction by computer such as asking learners structured questions, responding to the choices learners made, providing expository information, testing learners, allow learners to access stored data and information in database of various sorts, allow students to contribute to computer conferencing and given students the opportunity to perform mathematical and logical analysis of data.
- Grouping learning: Students in groups benefit form feedback from each other, because computer-assisted learning system can make a highly significant contribution to a wide range of group-learning activities. Since social studies gospel is how to promote spirit of group and team work in order to achieve mind of togetherness in the learners.
(B) Non-projected materials.
Ughamadu (1992 in Anyanwu 2003) assert that, non-projected materials are these materials that do not require any form of projection before they can be used. Non-projected materials are different forms of instructional materials that required not the process of projection before its operation can take place. These could include the following, textual and non-textual, chalk-book, magnetic broad/ soft/board flip-chart, specimen, models etc.
Textual materials and non-textual materials refer respectively to all the print and non-print materials that are used by the teachers and learners for instructional process. The print materials are the textbooks, magazines, periodicals, journals, and newspapers, among others while the non-print materials includes. Charts, chalkboard, radio television, films videotapes, audiotapes, relia, festivals and games (Esu 2004) expressed that together they assist the students in acquiring clear concepts of subject matter they are also students’ best single academic friends. Moreover they can provide security for the unprepared teacher and an escape hatch for one who is instructing outside his field of specialization.
The textual print materials comprise so large a proportion of all teaching aids that selecting written materials for the teaching of a given unit poses specific problems the textual prints are the prescribed or main texts used for a given course. They are the set of books or course books specifically written for a given course or programme. There is a wide range of textual prints as well as supplementary ones as I have mentioned earlier. While non-textual print materials are the print materials that supplement the main texts and enrich the learning situation. When combined with the correct use of the main text they can provide richness in learning experiences that can be gained in no other way. All these are durable materials that social studies should endeevour to explore and use during teaching and learning processes in order to enrich the concepts of social studies in the mind of the learners.
Specimens are the real object or things a teacher can use for effective teaching of social studies concepts. It makes social studies teachers’ work easier and more participatory. These are objects like traditional wears, minerals, rocks, plants etc. all these help the learners to see, touch, small (where necessary) and handle physically which give brim real natural experiences in learning.
Textbooks are special and types of book, which is written to satisfy a special need in the school curriculum (Ajayi and Emma 2005). They further classified textbooks into four categories; reference, general, course, and children textbooks.
Adekeye (2008) identifies some criteria for selecting or writing textbooks in social studies, such as author, language age and vocabulary, content, format, does it reflect social studies objectives, are there any handful ether-religions-gender or nationals bias, durability, availability, publisher data and many other relevant criteria were listed by her.
(c) Phenomenal and manipulative materials
These instructional materials are majorly community based resources that, promote the teaching-learning of social studies. Phenomenals are instructional situations such as events, things, features, settings, festivals and other community resources that are directly apprehended by the learner at their natural setting constitute this category (Esu 2004)
They help to bring the learners in direct contact with learning experiences that far transcend volumes of recorded literature and weeks of sermonization. Despite the fact, of these positive ends, field trips and schools journeys that normally bring learners into contact with the phenomenals are underutilized because of time, finance, knowledge of the teacher, inflexibility of the school timetable and other infrastructural problems.
Esu further asserts that, phenomenals can be natural or man-made. According to him, they include the following categories; community resources such as resource persons, museums, aquaria, zoos, farms, fish ponds, beaches, caves, hot springs, volcanic eruption sites, among others. He expressed further that, another groups includes dramatization, demonstrations, games, concerts, operas, dances and festivals. He equally encouraged that, social studies teachers should explore and widely utilize the phenomenals because these can stimulate aesthetic talents, promote, tactile stimulus and enhances identification and attachment not only with nature but also with the particular learning situation that they facilitate socialization process.
This class of instructional materials deals mostly with the affective but does not preclude the psychomotor and the cognitive domains he maintained.
Manipulative materials are instructional materials that, the learners actually handle skillfully, deal with, and manage expertly to bring about the desired behavioural changes. They are important for the development of skill in professional training (Esu 2004). They promote complete mastery of the content materials and the specific objectives. They also form part of both the instructional and performance evaluation. The greatest significant of these materials is that, without them (or their upraised) neither the required leaning nor objectives evaluation can be adhered. Manipulative expresses the channel through which the required learning takes place. They cut across all aspects of skills development and mastery learning. These materials are vital for social studies because such skills as communication, tolerance, patience, and assertiveness are easily demonstrated, leant and observed through instructional games. Teaching of social studies can encourage some card and board games that have specific instructional values in order to enhance basic and logic reasoning amongst learners.
2.3 IMPORTANCE & USES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN SOCIAL STUDIES INSTRUCTION.
Many researcher and authority have comment immensely in the use of instructional materials in social studies instructions and any other educational processes, that the use can not be over-emphasized. Abujaber (1987) assert that, the importance of instructional materials for both teacher and students cannot be over emphasized. In social studies, the use of instructional materials is essential to support learning because social studies are concerned about natural and social phenomenal which cannot be easily expressed without the support of graphics maps, video, pictures etc.
Cursor (1997) points out that using instructional materials in social studies classroom widens the channels of communication between teachers and their students. He further maintain that the instructional materials allow the growth of specific learning abilities and enhance intellectual skills and major skills-the use of charts and models enables the teacher to present and illustrate many physical phenomena and issues easily and at the same time, allows them to focus attention on the characteristic of objects.
Adeyanju (1997) Learning can be reinforced with learning aids of different variety because they stimulate, motivate, as well as arrest learners’ attention for a while during the instructional process. In a research conducted by Adeyanju in university of winneba Ghana, a surrey sample of teachers with several years of teaching experiences of between (03) and treaty-five (25) years, claim that teaching aids improve methodology. They also claim that learning aids reduce-their talk and chalk method while some of the teachers claim that whenever they taught with some of the instructional materials, their student get more stimulated because the learning aid help them (students) to become more attentive. In addition, students positive attitude generate more interest for the lesson they teach as a result students participate better in class activity
Bozimo (2002) “the importance of instructional materials lies on the fact that abstract ideas, data or information expressed in printed pages become tangible and concrete when they are translated or reflected in forms of instructional materials and resource. she further maintain that, the inter disciplinary or integrated nature of social studies demands that well thought-out materials be used in the classroom instructional to enable the learners comprehend the interrelatedness of knowledge and unity of various disciplines making up the social sciences and humanities. The materials will also be such that can unambiguously reveal the dynamic nature of man, his activities, decisions and problems”.
We need to realize that, the application of instructional in the social studies classroom and any other instructional setting improves teaching-learning and allows the teachers and students to interact as human beings in the environment they find themselves, for their own purpose. More specifically, instructional materials is use to concretize conceptual abstraction in social studies since the focal point of social studies is to instill in students practical skills that they will use to explore solution to their situational problems within the environment they live in.
Form the foregoing, the importance and the usefulness of instructional materials in social studies instructions can be best explain on the following points:
(1) stimulation of interest
(2) concretize abstract issues or topics in social studies
(3) Creating effective communication.
(4) Use for mass instruction and taking care of wide audience.
(5) Providing meaning and useful sources of information to teachers and learners.
(6) They help in developing a continuity of reasoning and coherence of thought
(7) They save time and reduce verbalism or repetition of word
(8) They are use to perfect teaching methods and promote chores relations between the community and school.
(1). stimulation of interest.
In teaching-learning process, there is the need to generate, arouse, motivate and maintain students’ interest. If the learners’ interest is build properly, learning can take place effectively. As instructional materials have the potentials if effectively used for regulating the pace of information flow among different class of learners under the same classroom. It addresses individual differences and preserve-infact, Students are arouse with the nature and the beautiful appearance of the materials which will make them to Settle down and learn what the teacher had prepared to teach.
Nnyejmesi (1981) sited by Anyawu (2003) agreed and based on investigations that pictures-i stimulates and help further study, helps children to take active interest in the topic presented, ii-Manning admitted that they find pictures interesting and that pictures gave them clear ideas of the topic. This resulted in further activities and comprehension of the verbal materials.
(2). concretize abstract issues or topics in social studies.
The use of instructional materials in social studies makes learning real, practical and more permanents to the learners. It makes conceptual abstraction in social studies more meaningful.
Esu (2004) sates that; instructional materials are valuable assets in learning situations because they make lesions practical and realistic. They area the pivots on which the wheels of the teaching-learning process rotate. Since its concretize issues, it then facilitate revision (recall) activities and provider very unique opportunities for self and group evaluation for the teacher and the students alike. It captures the student intellect and eliminates boredom; make the work easier, neater, boosting for clarity and more appeal.
3. creating effective communication
Instructional materials if properly used allow for a flow and transmission of ideal from the teacher to the students and likewise from the students to the teacher or from one group to other.
The learners will be able to see, touch, spell what is been talked about by the teacher and be curious to ask questions that would be very helpful for effective evaluation (formative) of the teacher and instructions in social studies.
(4). use for mass instructional and taking care of a wide audience.
With the use of projected and electronic materials such as television, overhead transparencies and computer especially, instructions are packaged in a very broad manners and which take care of wide range of learner in a classroom with less stress and time. Many students will be able to learn faster as the package takes care of various learners’ interest at the same time. Teacher can handle a very large class conveniently as the teacher is guiding and displaying the instructional materials on the wall with the use of projector.
(5). providing meaning and useful sources of information to teachers and learners:
Teachers are up to date and able to provide for reliable and useful information for the learners with the use of instructional materials, it can effectively be used to ultimate, shorten information from various sources for the purpose of comparison and contrasting ideas. It helps in perception and retention of information or knowledge in social studies learners.
(6). they help in developing a continuity of reasoning and coherence of thought
Social studies discipline been an integrate course of study that incorporate ideas from different disciplines, the use of instructional materials helps the learners on providing integrated experiences, which may vary from, disciplines which make the end product of education more productive. Since students are expose to the real nature of those concept or body of knowledge they tend to analyses and synthesis those body of knowledge for the proper application in their daily lives.
(7). the save time and reduce verbalism or repletion of words:
Emma & Ajayi (2004) asserts that “figurative speaking instructional materials enable the teacher to be in more than one place at a time and to address several issues at a time. For example, a video material could be on while the teacher moves around to explain to individuals students the subject contents in response to requests based on individual differences on problems. While the video material continues, providing details of the assignment the teacher also becomes part of the listening audience.
It reduces verbalism or repetition of world by the teacher without knowing their meaning and also adds Varity in reinforcing verbal messages by providing a multi-media approach. Esu (2004) asserts that instructional materials are indispensable factor in a teaching learning process. This is because or clearly words or verbalization has been found to be inadequate for effective teaching. Instructional materials, frankly speaking reduce the level at which the teacher should strives himself in the process of talking rather he guide the process of the instructions. And as a result save his time in process of teaching.
(8). they are use to perfect teaching methods and promote closer relations between the community and school:
The teachers of social studies perfect not only their methods of teaching but also perfect contents and situations (activities) to be taught. With the use of instructional materials, the teacher is able to edit, try and retry, alter and delete his activities to fit the standard of the students and also to effectively address the curriculum objectives. Instructional materials if properly utilize helps in giving direct contact with the realities of the learners both social and physical environments.
The purpose of using instructional materials in social studies is for the students to internalize the situational issues happening around his totality, the students will be able to identify crucial issues and address these issues if properly inculcated with the use of instructional materials. Walsh (1967 in chuba 2000) posited three importances of teaching aids in social studies class, as;
1. Easing off teachers’ teaching task,
2. Satisfying different children’s learning patterns and
3. In-building of special child’s/ learner’s appeal by teaching aid manufactures, which help to motivate or captivate interests of the learner.
Almost in a similar note, Ikwumelu (1992; 29 in cluba. 200; 102) outlined the following points as the reasons why teachers must apply teaching aids in the social studies classrooms:
1. teaching aids helps to concretize abstract issues and topics;
2. they motivate pupils’ interests in topic being discuses,
3. they develop continuity of reasoning and coherence of thought which augurs well with the inter-interdisciplinary nature of social studies,
4. Teaching aids save time and as things presented are almost self explanatory, energy is saved in too much talking and writing and
5. They help to appeal to pupil interests and this is because, they tend to appeal to children’s difficulties as well as take care of children’s differences.
2.4 PRINCIPLES AND REQUIREMENT FOR THE SELECTION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS.
The preceding discussion had shown that there are many instructional materials available and from various sources equally. It is therefore very important, of a social studies teachers to note and bear in mind that every instructional materials has its definite unique strength in teaching-learning situation that properly cannot be replicated by the use mother. It is necessary to note that through effective communication, better teaching and faster learning can only be facilitated or guaranteed by careful selection and skillful utilization of appropriate instructional materials by the users.
However, availability, of the instructional materials, teacher’s experience, terms of preference and the volume of instructions should constitute intrinsic consideration in their selection decision. Despite of that fact, the following five principles should guide social studies teachers in the selection of instructional materials:
Principle 1 instructional tasks; The behavioral objectors, contents, learning activities, evaluation instruments and techniques as element of instructional tasks, should be taking into cognizance by social studies teacher in the selection of instructional materials.
Principle 2 target audience attributes; These consists the learners’ factures and their level of understanding, their developmental stages such as age, sex, physical skills, attitude towards self and others, the learners experiences, social-economic background should be considered.
Principle 3 the economy; The available resources, financial factors technological advancement, economic climate of society where the materials should be operated, the socio-cultural level of the materials users, degree of urbanization, feasibility and acceptability of the selected instructional materials are equally considered in the selection decision.
Principle 4 dynamic variables; These variables constitute the concentration and size of the target audience, the desired level of learners response and participation, the classroom social climate, sitting, viewing and listening arrangement, available time, space, teacher competence among others are to be seriously considered in the selection decision.
Principle 5 the environmental factors; These consists the educational community and the available educational infrastructure. Such as people facilities, equipped library, workshops, laboratories, electricity, water supply and personnel should equally be considered in the selection.
Bozimo (2002) posited the following criteria in the selection of instructional materials;-
(i) Appropriateness of the materials to instructional objectives;
(ii) Freedom of the content from bias,
(iii) Degree of the quality variety of the materials,
(iv) Quality of the format, print, sound or photography,
(v) Availability of the materials to clarify objectives of and how to operate the materials,
(vi) How reasonable the time, effort and expenses are for both the students and the teachers
These considerations are extremely necessary in selecting instructional materials
for social studies. Kissock (1981:86-87 in Bozimo 2002:39-40) poses some questions that will assist a social studies teacher in selecting and applying instructional materials. These questions are as follows;
(i) Do the materials fit within the planned rationale and scope of the programme?
(ii) Will there use help ensure alignment of objectives created for this programme?
(iii) Are they compatible within the teaching strategies selected?
(iv) Do they offer the content which is important for achieving the objectives?
(v) Are they languages and vocabularies appropriate for the studies’ reading abilities?
(vi) Are there any harmful ethnic, religious, social, sexual or racial biases in the materials?
(vii) Are they well made?
(viii) Is the cost appropriate and affordable?
(ix) Will they be useful for the length of time desired?
(x) Will teachers find the materials easy to use?
(xi) Will students be interested in making use of them?
(xii) Are they factually correct?
Hence, Iyewarun (1989:60 in Bozimo 2002) added that, in order to select and use resources materials appropriately, the social studies teacher must be able to respond satisfactory to the following questions:
(i) Can the resource materials serve intended purpose?
(ii) Are the resource materials appropriate for intended learners?
(iii) Are the resource materials readily available?
(iv) Can the resource materials serve as adequate supplements?
(v) Are the resource materials careful and systematically organized for effective use?
Emma & Ajayi (2004) identify five criteria for the selection as follows:
(i) behavioral objectives and the structure of subject Mather
(ii) learning style
(iii) practicability
(iv) availability
(v) teacher’s capability
2.6 THE PRINCIPLES OR GUIDLINES AND REQUIREMENT FOR THE USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
Use and utilization judges the value of instructional materials, process or personnel by the degree they singly or collectively satisfy the derived instructional needs. The foresight instructional behavior controls, to a large extent, the means for achieving them. Instructional materials are not ends in themselves but means of attaining specific instructional functions. Teachers ability to effectively utilize the available media and this optimize the attainments of instructional situation varies with their level of utilization. However, once materials have been selected, careful preparation comes first by the user and other subsequent preparation. Anyanwu (2003) identify three ways by which the teacher should prepare for the use of instructional materials in social studies, these are as follows:-
(i). By previewing:- before any instructional materials are brought to the class, the teacher has to have a first knowledge by using it her self before the class,
(2). first knowledge:- the teacher should have a full knowledge of the parts, names operational level of the intended instructional materials,
(3). Actual presentation- this is the period the teacher operates and uses these materials in instructing the children.
The following are the basic six guidelines and requirement for utilization and use of instructional materials in social studies:
1st Guideline: specification-of objectives clear objectives which are behaviorally stated are user ring guides in instructional materials using process they direct the sequence, methods, content and techniques of instructional in social studies. They provide scientific basis of valid evaluation instruments construction and administration.
2nd Guideline: maximal, fit with instructional tasks Instructional materials must be appropriate to situation ally determined and individually responsive
3rd Guideline: preparation and preview for effectives and successful use of instructional materials for proper teaching –learning situation, the teacher must in advance prepare himself, the learners and the environment, the materials as a matter of must should be previewed by the teacher in order to follow its process of presentation sequentially.
4th Guideline: multi-dimensional presentation proper and creative use of a variety of instructional materials at different level of lesson planning can be adequate in achieving various instructional objectives, reason because it will enrich variety of learners mind as they attain better goals more easily than with the use of a single medium
5th Guideline: environmental situation the environmental variables such as physical cultural and social in which the instructional materials are utilized for learning have significant effect on their effectiveness. Sound-motion films for instance with their attention-complexly properties can be successfully presented in less quiet environment.
6th Guideline: measure for outcomes instructional materials should be evaluated in terms of their suitability, practicability to the instructional objectives, appeal to the cost effectiveness, learner achievement level, consistency with content call for improvement in utilization techniques etc.
2.6 PROBLEM ASSOCIATED WITH THE USE OF INSTRUCTION MATERIALS
It has been identified that, using instructional materials to facilitate learning in social studies instructions is not always the issue but how to use it and it availability to use. Basing our discussion on foreign experience, instructional materials are available in large quantity “ the increased quality and quantity of instructional materials, are producing a slit form the traditional audio visual aids approach to the more comprehensive and efficient learning resource concepts” (jarolinek & Walsh 1969) “most teacher will agree that during the last decades the quality of instructional resource, including text-books has greatly improved, but with qualitative changes and a rapidly multiplying supply of available materials, the teachers problem of selection has grown increasingly acute” (Arudorf 1969:278) “ instructional materials in great qualities are being placed in school at an ever increasing rate. The teachers problem today, than, is not the lack of materials, but how to make the best instructional use of those available to him”. (Jarolinek 1971)
Unfortunately, instructional materials especially the modern innovation, are grossly lacking in this country (Nigeria) let alone its circulation to the secondary schools in kabba/bunu local government area of kogi-state in Nigeria and others across the nation. A lot of problems are confronting the use of instructional materials in this country’s (Nigeria), secondary schools some of the revealing in the foregoing includes:
(a) Lack of founds:
This factor seems to be the handicap why most educational institutions are unable to acquire relevant teaching equipments and materials. It has also adversely affected the quantity of tinning and these products (student-teachers) will lack the opportunity to learn and use new techniques in the field. It was revealed by Adeyanju in his investigation in university of winneba, Ghana “teacher perception of the effects and use of learning aids in teaching”, that the essence of involving the students teachers in teaching exercise called on-campus teaching practice (OCAP) and schools attachment programme (SAP) is to sufficiently help develop require teaching skills and to expose them on how to handle instructional materials.
There are sophisticated instructional materials that can make learning easier and faster such as computer-aided programme but lack of funds has effects on its importation and use in our schools.
(b) Teachers knowledge and technical know how:
Since educational communication and technology is a fairly new area of importance in education especially in developing communities like Nigeria. It is a lightly technical field, and to understand how it can affect the teaching and learning situation in social studies, one first has to understand the operational functionality of the materials. As much as materials differ in terms of technical components, design and set-up, they also differ in terms of functionality. Same are multi-dimensional; capable of various functions such as giving logical out comes, manipulating information etc.
In developing comities today, the whole idea and its implementation is still strange to a larger percentage of the population, even those who know about it know very little of its capabilities and operational functionalities. However, this is light at the end of the tunnel with more people becoming aware of the contributions and methods of applying instructional materials has come to mean so much to social studies classroom and other educational context. Without, the teacher who is knowledgeable enough, instructional materials cannot create change and progress. Teachers knowledge have a great impact on the effective application of instructional materials, this is because the teacher uses to understand the sequential presentation of the instructional gadgets so as to suit the interests of the learners and it appropriateness with the instructional tasks.
For instance, a teacher who is not computer literate would find it difficult to apply its operation even when and where found necessary, or even if the teacher has a partial knowledge of the operational function of the materials. The materials might be wrongly used thereby creating a wrong impression for the audience or the students.
(c) Unavailability of the materials:
Another pressed issue about instructional materials for use is that, the materials are grossly lacking in the schools. This is true if the few researches conducted in this country are anything to go by, for a reference, a study conducted by Adewoye (1987) of the department of education, Ahmadu Bello university Zaria, revealed that teaching materials are grossly lacking in this country she reported that on the type of resources materials teachers had in schools 89% of the respondents claimed that they had to improvise while 57% indicated that they had no access to resource materials at all. This indicates lack of teaching materials in our schools. Similar study conducted by M.ED students of the university of Jos, pointed to the same direction of lack of resources materials in our schools in reference to Ismailia (1986:136) reported that, out of 144 subjects involved in the study, 124 (86:1%) indicated that their schools were in short supply of teaching materials only 8 (5.6%) of the respondents indicated that their schools were adequately supplied with instructional materials.
Akafa (1986:129 in Buba 2003:25-26) undertook a study of social studies teaching materials in taraba state and reported thus; the findings from this study revealed there was scarcity of both printed and audio-visual materials in most of the instructional neither printed nor audio-visual materials were available in sufficient quantity or quality. The few institutions which indicated the availability of these materials (indicated also that materials) were rather in poor condition. However, creativity and improvisation are the watchwords in any successful application of instructional materials. Reading out is different from subject content and quality and the latter is more important in any teaching and learning situation, so some teachers still fail in improvising for materials that are not available.
(d) Environmental factors
Part of the application of instructional materials process is the target population for whom the materials are to be used and the setting or vicinity where the learning should take place, the degree of satisfaction derived by children in respect to comfortability of environment of that learning situation is a great deal. For instance teaching social studies content in a very remote area where there is no availability of electricity and the content requires projected materials, it will be very difficult learning to accomplish.
(e) Time constraints or factor:
Time, is also a serious problem or factor that impede the effective use of instructional materials in social studies instructions because some time the time that is allotted for a subject on the timetable might not be enough for the teachers to present his contents alongside with effective use of the materials which will affect the wholesome delivery of the content.
(f) Poor maintenance culture
Materials available for the teaching of social studies are poorly manhandled by both the teachers and school authority. Social studies especially, is affected by non available of resource room for the proper keep of both the locally manufactured and the commercially purchased ones thereby limiting it use as the time needed. Very many of the teachers use materials occasionally without the proper upkeep of the materials after used for the future reference.
2.7 MANUFACTURING & MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
It is no doubt that Nigerian lack maintenance culture, references have been made to some empirical studies the work of Adewoye (1987) and Akafa (1987) established the fact that, the few instructional materials available in our schools are poorly managed and maintained. It is clear that, change is constant and inevitable in all aspects of human Endeavour we see new things being develop mainly for positive purpose, though the negative aspect cannot be ruled out. Production or manufacturing of instructional materials are broadly done in two major ways in our community, they could be imported foreign or manufactured locally (improvisation).
In a highly developed country, instructional materials are available from commercial sources. In a developing community on the other hand like Nigeria, the materials may not be readily available for educational organizations to purchase for teaching their instructions since this is the case, developing countries may now resort to importation the materials or manufacture them locally.
Local production or manufacturing of instructional material also known as in improvisation of instructional materials is the provision of alternatives to actual. This process can also review as substituting, replacing or altering the materials for a particular use in teaching. Improvisation of instructional materials for classroom in social studies instructions should be a matter of concern to all well meaningful social studies teachers and educators. Since, we cannot buy all the required hardware and software materials for social studies instructions and educational development.
Instructional materials can be improvised by the teachers for his students if and when imported or commercial ready-mades are not available or not within the reach of the school or teacher. A resourceful teacher is one who when faced with a problems, considers different solutions and decides on the most suitable one. In dosing this, he also considers and uses all possible resource materials necessary for solving the problem.
Local manufacturing of instructional materials involves the teacher and learners in realistic, problem-solving activities, which stimulate effective learning. It is believed that local production of materials help to develop the visual literacy of the learners as they participate in the production with the teacher. Its also develops the students’ imaginative thinking as they participate in the collection and production of the materials.
Another important issue after manufacturing instructional materials is the maintenance culture by both the teacher and the school. The study by Adewoye (1987) also revealed that the few instructional materials available in school were not talking proper care of, 53% of the respondents in his study indicated that, materials were not properly maintained while only 47% of the population felt that the maintained. This study was equally conducted in Kogi, Anambra, Kaduna, Oyo, Lagos, Taraba, Kwara, and Niger and was reported at the conference of the Curriculum Organization of Nigeria (CON) in Zaria, 23rd September 1987.
We do not need to undertake scientific inquiry in order to realize the serious lack of good management and maintenance of instructional materials in our schools. However, social studies teachers should abide by the spirit of preservation, conservation and rationing as some of concepts of social studies education. We need to recalled when America was at war in the early 1940’s, they realized the need for preservation and conservation and also these were incorporated and taught in social studies curriculum. With our present economic crunch and social realities, there is every need for us to develop the attitudes of rationalization, preservation and conservation not only towards materials we use at home but also toward the searce teaching materials available to use in school. Both social studies teachers and school should Endeavour to develop a very reliable social studies resource room so as to facilitate proper and save keeping of the available resources for teaching.
2.8 SUMMARY OF RELATED LITERATURE REVIEWED
The analysis of the review related literature on the use of instructional materials in social studies instructions contained in this literature review, show that instructional materials when properly used makes instructional process real, more permanent and more appealing. It draws the learners into practical contact with those abstracts concepts in teaching-learning, they became meaningful. The review indicated that there are three broad types of instructional materials used in teaching and learning process–projected such as (slide, films television) non-projected materials such as (textual and non-textual) and phenomenal materials.
It was also review that, there are principles a social studies teachers need to observe in selecting and using instructional materials such principles like instructional tasks, target audience attributes, the economy, specification and guideline maximal fit guideline, preparation and preview guideline etc.
The review further observed some problems associated with the use of instructional materials such as funds, environment and time factors teachers’ knowledge and technical know how. The management and maintained culture over the materials available was also addressed. Concussively teachers, being professionals in the field of education, especially social studies must be aware of the directions which the design of production and use of instructional materials should take. Obviously, the efficiency of any instructional materials depends to a large extent on their relevance to the physical environment and cultural background of the learner. We should therefore, embark upon local production